Fresh Meat & Fish Consumed in the Middle Ages
"The availability and use of fresh meat, poultry and fish in the Middle Ages", by Melissa Snell, About.com Guide

Depending on their status in society and where they lived, medieval people had a variety of meats to enjoy. But thanks to Fridays, Lent, and various days deemed meatless by the Catholic Church, even the wealthiest and most powerful people did not eat meat or poultry every day. Fresh fish was fairly common, not only in coastal regions, but inland, where rivers and streams were still teeming with fish in the Middle Ages, and where most castles and manors included well-stocked fish ponds.

Those who could afford spices used them liberally to enhance the flavor of meat and fish. Those who could not afford spices used other flavorings like garlic, onion, vinegar and a variety of herbs grown throughout Europe. The use of spices and their importance has contributed to the misconception that it was common to use them to disguise the taste of rotten meat. However, this was an uncommon practice perpetrated by underhanded butchers and vendors who, if caught, would pay for their crime.

Meat in Castles and Manor Homes

A large portion of the foodstuffs served to the residents of castles and manor homes came from the land on which they lived. This included wild game from nearby forests and fields, meat and poultry from the livestock they raised in their pastureland and barnyards, and fish from stock ponds as well as from the rivers, streams and seas. Food was used swiftly -- usually within a few days, and sometimes on the same day -- and if there were leftovers, they were gathered up as alms for the poor and distributed daily.

Occasionally, meat procured ahead of time for large feasts for the nobility would have to last a week or so before being eaten. Such meat was usually large wild game like deer or boar. Domesticated animals could be kept on the hoof until the feast day drew near, and smaller animals could be trapped and kept alive, but big game had to be hunted and butchered as the opportunity arose, sometimes from lands several days' travel away from the big event. There was often concern from those overseeing such victuals that the meat might go off before it came time to serve it, and so measures were usually taken to salt the meat to prevent rapid deterioration. Instructions for removing outer layers of meat that had gone bad and making wholesome use of the remainder have come down to us in extant cooking manuals.

Be it the most sumptuous of feasts or the more modest daily meal, it was the lord of the castle or manor, or the highest-ranking resident, his family, and his honored guests who would receive the most elaborate dishes and, consequently, the finest portions of meat. The lower the status of the other diners, the further away from the head of the table, and the less impressive their food. This could mean that those of low rank did not partake of the rarest type of meat, or the best cuts of meats, or the most fancily-prepared meats; but they ate meat nonetheless.

Meat for Peasants and Village-Dwellers

Peasants rarely had much fresh meat of any kind. It was illegal to hunt in the lord's forest without permission, so, in most cases, if they had game it would have been poached, and they had every reason to cook it and dispose of the remains the very same day it was killed. Some domestic animals such as cows and sheep were too large for everyday fare and were reserved for the feasts of special occasions like weddings, baptisms, and harvest celebrations.

Chickens were ubiquitous, and most peasant families (and some city families) had them; but people would enjoy their meat only after their egg-laying days (or hen-chasing days) were over. Pigs were very popular, and could forage just about anywhere, and most peasant families had them. Still, they weren't numerous enough to slaughter every week, so the most was made of their meat by turning it into long-lasting ham and bacon. Pork, which was popular in all levels of society, would be an unusual meal for peasants.

Fish could be had from the sea, rivers and streams, if there were any nearby, but, as with hunting the forests, the lord could claim the right to fish a body of water on his lands as part of his demesne. Fresh fish was not often on the menu for the average peasant.

A peasant family would usually subsist on pottage and porridge, made from grain, beans, root vegetables and pretty much anything else they could find that might taste good and provide sustenance, sometimes enhanced with a little bacon or ham.

Meat in Religious Houses

Most rules followed by monastic orders limited the consumption of meat or forbade it altogether, but there were exceptions. Sick monks or nuns were allowed meat to aid their recovery. The elderly were allowed meat the younger members were not, or were given greater rations. The abbot or abbess would serve meats to guests and partake, as well. Often, the entire monastery or convent would enjoy meat on feast days. And some houses allowed meat every day but Wednesday and Friday.

Of course, fish was an entirely different matter, being the common substitute for meat on meatless days. How fresh the fish would be depended on whether or not the monastery had access to, and fishing rights in, any streams, rivers or lakes.

Because monasteries or convents were mostly self-sufficient, the meat available to the brothers and sisters was -- usually -- pretty much the same as that served in a manor or castle, although the more common foodstuffs like chicken, beef, pork and mutton would be more likely than swan, peacock, venison or wild boar.

Meat in Towns and Cities

In towns and small cities, many families had enough land to support a little livestock -- usually a pig or some chickens, and sometimes a cow. The more crowded the city was, however, the less land there was for even the most modest forms of agriculture, and the more foodstuffs had to be imported. Fresh fish would be readily available in coastal regions and in towns by rivers and streams, but inland towns could not always enjoy fresh seafood and might have to settle for preserved fish.

City dwellers usually purchased their meat from a butcher, often from a stall in a marketplace but sometimes in a well-established shop. If a housewife bought a rabbit or duck to roast or use in a stew, it was for that mid-day dinner or that evening's meal; if a cook procured beef or mutton for his cookshop or street vending business, his product wouldn't be expected to keep for more than a day. Butchers were wise to offer the freshest meats possible for the simple reason that they'd go out of business if they didn't. Vendors of pre-cooked "fast food," which a large portion of city dwellers would frequent due to their lack of private kitchens, were also wise to use fresh meat, because if any of their customers got sick it wouldn't take long for word to spread.

This is not to say there weren't cases of shady butchers attempting to pass off older meat as fresh or underhanded vendors selling reheated pasties with older meat. Both occupations developed a reputation for dishonesty that has characterized modern views of medieval life for centuries. However, the worst problems were in crowded cities such as London and Paris, where crooks could more easily avoid detection or apprehension, and where corruption among city officials (not inherent, but more common than in smaller towns) made their escapes easier.

In most medieval towns and cities, the selling of bad food was neither common nor acceptable. Butchers who sold (or tried to sell) old meat would face severe penalties, including fines and time in the pillory, if their deception was discovered. A fairly substantial number of laws were enacted concerning guidelines for proper management of meat, and in at least one case the butchers themselves drew up regulations of their own.

Meats Consumed in the Middle Ages

The average medieval cook or housewife had access to a variety of meat from both wild and domesticated animals. Cooks in the households of the nobility had a fairly impressive selection available to them. Here are some, but by no means all, of the meat medieval people would consume.

Beef and Veal

By far the most common meat, beef was regarded as coarse and was never considered exclusive enough for the nobility; but it was very popular among the lower classes. Though more tender, veal never surpassed beef in popularity.

Many peasant households had cows, usually only one or two, that would be slaughtered for meat once their days of giving milk had passed. This would usually take place in the fall so that the creature would not have to be fed through the winter, and whatever was not consumed at a feast would be preserved for use throughout the months ahead. Most of the animal was used for food, and those parts that weren't eaten had other purposes; the hide was made into leather, the horns (if any) might be used for drinking vessels, and the bones were occasionally used to make sewing implements, fasteners, parts of tools, weapons, or musical instruments, and a variety of other useful items.

In larger towns and cities, a substantial portion of the population had no kitchens of their own, and so it was necessary for them to purchase their meals ready-made from street vendors: a kind of medieval "fast food." Beef would be used in the meat pies and other food items these vendors cooked if their customers were numerous enough to consume the product of a slaughtered cow in a matter of days.

Goat and Kid

Goats had been domesticated for thousands of years, but they were not particularly popular in most parts of medieval Europe. The meat of both adult goats and kids was consumed, however, and the females gave milk that was used for cheese.

Mutton and Lamb

Meat from a sheep that is at least a year old is known as mutton, which was very popular in the Middle Ages. In fact, mutton was sometimes the most expensive fresh meat available. It was preferable for a sheep to be from three to five years old before being slaughtered for its meat, and mutton that came from a castrated male sheep (a "wether") was considered the finest quality.

Adult sheep were most often slaughtered in the fall; lamb was usually served in the spring. Roast leg of mutton was among the most popular foods for nobility and peasant alike. Like cows and pigs, sheep might be kept by peasant families, who could make use of the animal's fleece regularly for homespun wool (or trade or sell it).

Ewes gave milk that was frequently used for cheese. As with goat cheese, cheese made from sheep's milk could be eaten fresh or stored for quite some time.

Pork, Ham, Bacon, and Suckling Pig

Since ancient times, the meat of the pig had been very popular with everyone except Jews and Muslims, who regard the animal as unclean. In medieval Europe, pigs were everywhere. As omnivores, they could find food in the forest and city streets as well as on the farm.

Where peasants could usually only afford to raise one or two cows, pigs were more numerous. Ham and bacon lasted a long time and went a long way in the humblest peasant household. As common and inexpensive as keeping pigs was, pork was favored by the most elite members of society, as well as by city vendors in pies and other ready-made foods.

Like cows, nearly every part of the pig was used for food, right down to its hooves, which were used to make jellies. Its intestines were popular casings for sausages, and its head was sometimes served on a platter at festive occasions.

Rabbit and Hare

Rabbits have been domesticated for millennia, and they could be found in Italy and neighboring parts of Europe during Roman times. Domesticated rabbits were introduced to Britain as a food source after the Norman Conquest. It is then we see for the first time recipes incorporating rabbits rather than hares, as a rare delicacy. Adult rabbits more than a year old are known as "coneys" and show up fairly frequently in surviving cookbooks, even though they were a rather expensive and unusual food item.

Hare has never been domesticated, but it was hunted and eaten in medieval Europe. Its meat is darker and richer than that of rabbits, and it was frequently served in a heavily-peppered dish with a sauce made from its blood.

Venison

There were three types of deer common in medieval Europe: roe, fallow, and red. All three were popular quarry for aristocrats on the hunt, and the meat of all three was enjoyed by the nobility and their guests on many an occasion. The male deer (stag or hart) was considered superior for meat. Venison was a popular item at banquets, and in order to be sure of having the meat when it was wanted, deer were sometimes kept in enclosed tracts of land ("deer parks").

Since the hunting of deer (and other animals) in the forests was usually reserved for the nobility, it was highly unusual for the merchant, working, and peasant classes to partake of venison. Travelers and laborers who had reason to stay at or live in a castle or manor house might enjoy it as part of the bounty the lord and lady shared with their guests at mealtime. Sometimes cookshops were able to procure venison for their customers, but the product was much too expensive for all but the wealthiest merchants and nobility to purchase. Usually, the only way a peasant could taste venison was to poach it.

Wild Boar

The consumption of boar goes back thousands of years. Wild boar was highly prized in the Classical world, and in the Middle Ages it was a favored quarry of the hunt. Virtually all parts of the boar were eaten, including its liver, stomach and even its blood, and it was considered so tasty that it was the aim of some recipes to make the meat and innards of other animals taste like that of boar. A boar's head was often the crowning meal of a Christmas feast.

A Note on Horse Meat

The meat of horses has been consumed ever since the animal was first domesticated five thousand years ago, but in medieval Europe, horse was only eaten under the most dire circumstances of famine or siege. Horse meat is prohibited in the diets of Jews, Muslims, and most Hindus, and is the only food ever to be forbidden by Canon Law, which led to its being banned in most of Europe. Only in the 19th century was the restriction against horse meat lifted in any European countries. Horse meat does not appear in any surviving medieval cookbooks.


Fowl Consumed in the Middle Ages

Whether domesticated or hunted, birds were much-enjoyed food items in the Middle Ages. Some exotic birds we wouldn't consider food sources today were particularly popular at banquets, where, as a festive display, they would be re-dressed in their plumage after they'd been cooked. While peasants could occasionally consume chicken or perhaps even goose, most birds were captured by the upper classes in the hunt or raised to be sold at high prices and were therefore rarely eaten by the average medieval fellow.

Chicken, Capon and Eggs

Chicken appears in a good percentage of the recipes that have survived from the Middle Ages, and among the upper classes the meat was served frequently. In more modest homes, chicken might be served on very special occasions; peasants needed chickens for their eggs, and were very unlikely to eat a hen until it had stopped laying them. Eggs were used regularly and frequently in a wide variety of recipes in upper-class kitchens and peasant dwellings alike.

Capons -- castrated males -- were considered luxury items that only the rich could afford.

Duck

Though not as popular as chicken or goose, duck was often served in medieval Europe. Sometimes duck was raised domestically, but more often than not it appears to have been hunted or captured in the wild. Duck feathers were probably put to use in bedding and clothing, though goose feathers were more common for such uses. The duck's relative, the coot, was also known to be consumed.

Whenever the well-to-do laid on an impressive spread for a feast, duck and coot were very likely to be among the dishes served.

Game Birds: Partridge, Pheasant and Quail

These three birds are all related to each other, and all were hunted with the help of falcons by the upper classes. Pheasant was especially prized, since its meat was considered very flavorsome. Male pheasants had colorful feathers, and at aristocratic banquets it was common to serve them in their own plumage.

Goose

Geese have been domesticated since ancient times, and they have been raised for their feathers as well as for the meat, grease, and liver used in cooking. In England, it was traditional to serve goose on Michaelmas and Whitsuntide; in Germany, the Feast of Saint Martin was often a time to serve goose; and throughout Europe, goose was popular for Christmas feasts.

Peacock

Domesticated and highly prized for its stunning plumage, the peacock wasn't a particularly tasty bird, but it was still served at aristocratic functions as a status symbol in spite of its toughness. Their taste could be improved and their toughness mitigated by hanging the slaughtered birds by the neck with their feet weighted down a day or two. Like partridges and swans, the peacock was almost always served re-dressed in its own skin with its notable tail feathers fanned out.

Pigeon and Dove

The wood pigeon, the rock dove and the turtledove were domesticated for food in medieval Europe, and were usually reserved for the upper class. Pigeons and doves might be roasted or served in pies.

Water Birds: Crane, Heron and Swan

Like some game birds, cranes and herons were hunted by the aristocracy with falcons and hawks. Herons were known to be bred in the Low Countries, and the swan had been domesticated for centuries. All three were favorite dishes at banquets, particularly swan, which would not only be returned to its plumage after cooking but might have parts of it gilded to impress the guests. Though swan wasn't as tasty as most other birds eaten in medieval times, it was still a status symbol and commanded high prices in the marketplace.

Other Birds

The above birds are not the only winged creatures that were eaten in medieval times. Through archaeological evidence and account books of the wealthy and nobility, scholars have been able to verify that the following birds were also consumed, usually by the upper classes:

Fish & Seafood Consumed in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, the seas, lakes and rivers were teeming with fish, and medieval people took advantage of this fact with professional fishing fleets and fish traps. When a castle moat had water it might also have fish, and fish ponds were part of many manor holdings. Preserved fish was very common and easy to acquire.

Fish was allowed on the days of the week that the Church had declared "meatless" (such as every Friday and all of Lent), but it was usually eaten more often, especially in coastal regions. In medieval cookbooks, the exact type of fish wasn't always specified; as with measurements and cooking times, the knowledgeable cook decided what recipe went best with what fish.

Carp

Carp is native to northern European rivers and wasn't introduced into England until the late Middle Ages. Bream, a variety of carp, is indigenous to northern and central Europe and prefers slow-flowing and stagnant waters. This made it perfect for medieval fish ponds and castle moats, but its reputation as a bottom-feeder limited its prestige. The active dace, also of the carp family, could be caught by skilled anglers in fairly swift-moving streams and rivers, and occasionally made a good meal.

Cod or "Stockfish"

Although some sources indicate that "stockfish" could refer to any white fish, the term usually referred to cod (and its relatives haddock and whiting). Cod was caught in vast quantities in the North Atlantic, much of it off the coast of Iceland, where it was air-dried in the cold to preserve it and traded widely across Europe. Properly dried cod could last for years, and had to be beaten for hours and soaked for days to make it edible again. Preserved cod was often a staple in medieval households. Its roe, tongue and liver were considered delicacies.

Herring

This oily, fatty fish caught in the North Sea and the Baltic was enormously popular in the Middle Ages. Most of what was caught by professional fishermen was pickled, packed in barrels, and traded throughout Europe. Herring that was gutted, pre-soaked in brine, and thoroughly smoked would turn red. Herring that was cured without smoking retained its silver skin and was known as white herring, which kept longer than red herring. Though herring didn't last as long as cod, it still made a good staple fish.

Anchovies and sardines, which are found in warmer waters, are smaller relatives of the herring and were also eaten in the Middle Ages. The consumption of anchovies goes back to ancient times, and the fish remained part of Mediterranean cuisine throughout the medieval era and beyond. Both anchovies and sardines were salted to preserve them and traded throughout the Mediterranean and Adriatic regions.

Lamprey and Eel

Lamprey fish are sometimes mistaken for eels because of their slick, snakelike appearance, but they are actually parasites that suck the blood of larger fish. They live in the sea and spawn in rivers. Eels spawn in the ocean and spend most of their lives in fresh water; they were often caught in river traps. Eels, which were very common in the Middle Ages, were sometimes carefully separated from their skins, seasoned, and returned to the skin for roasting. Some surviving medieval recipes regard lamprey and eel as interchangeable.

Lobster, Crab and Crayfish

The Greeks and Romans were fond of lobster and crab, and the high regard with which such seafood was held never faded through the Middle Ages. (It's interesting to note that for a time in America, the abundance and easy availability of lobster made it a common food for poorer folk; but such was never the case in medieval Europe.) The lobster's freshwater cousin, the crayfish, was not precisely considered a delicacy, but it made a prestigious meal and was especially sought-after on meatless days.

Mackerel and Tuna

Both the mackerel and its relative, the tuna, were fairly abundant in the Atlantic and Mediterranean in medieval times. Mackerel was enjoyed fresh in season (usually beginning in June but sometimes as early as March), but it proved exceedingly difficult to preserve. Only the French appeared to have any success preserving mackerel, which they did with a lot of salt.

In Sicily, a tradition of tuna trapping goes back to at least the 10th century and may have originated with Muslim residents, although it's possible the custom goes back to Roman times or even earlier.

Mollusks

Cockles, oysters, mussels, scallops and whelks were consumed regularly in the Middle Ages, chiefly by people living on the coast. Although they were sometimes eaten by the wealthy (especially as part of a multi-course feast), mollusks were much more commonly eaten by the lower classes.

Pike

This carnivorous fish was held in high regard by medieval cooks and was a favorite of the nobility. Though often caught wild in the lakes and rivers of low-lying regions, pike were also kept in fish ponds, where they kept down the population of such prolific fish as bream.

Plaice and Flounder

These flatfish were among the most popular fish in northern Europe. In England, archaeological evidence shows that stockfish and herring were the only fish to appear more frequently in the High Medieval English diet.

Salmon and Trout

Though it spawns inland, the salmon lives all the rest of its days in the ocean. It was therefore caught in both seagoing ships and river traps. In the Middle Ages, salmon was very common, and was caught in great quantities in the Rhine and traded throughout Germany and beyond by the Hanseatic League. Trout, which is related to the salmon, was often mentioned in cookbooks as an alternative to other fish. Unlike its cousin, the trout is confined to fresh water.

Shrimp

The common European shrimp could be found in coastal waters of the North Atlantic. There was no large-scale shrimping industry, but shrimp were known to be consumed as part of impressive feasts. Since they could be obtained in shallow waters, they were probably eaten by poorer folk, as well.

Snails and Frogs

Both frogs and snails were considered fish by the Catholic Church and could therefore be consumed on meatless days. They were known to be eaten in Italy and France, but don't appear to have been particularly popular in northern Europe.

Sturgeon and Caviar

Most sturgeon spawn in rivers and live in the ocean, but there are some species that spend their entire lives in fresh water. In the Middle Ages, sturgeon were caught in the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, as well as in the Danube and other rivers that flowed into the Mediterranean. The Mongols were known to enjoy caviar, the roe of the sturgeon, as far back as the 11th century; by the 12th century the delicacy was being imported to Constantinople.

Whale and Porpoise

In the Middle Ages, these mammals were believed to be fish and were cooked and eaten accordingly. Whales and porpoises were claimed as "royal fish" in England, and were therefore not supposed to be eaten by the lower classes unless special permission was given by the king.

Other Fish

The variety of water creatures eaten in the Middle Ages was remarkable, and the above fish are only the tip of the iceberg. Here are just some of the many other species medieval people were known to consume: